Section 4 - p.18 [Previous Section] [Next Section] [Table of Contents]
This section provides more detail on the findings emerging from the Panel's review of current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound. The discussion follows four main themes: maintaining watershed integrity-which includes soil, surface erosion, slope stability, water flow, water quality, and channel integrity; maintaining biodiversity; recognizing First Nations' values; and maintaining scenic resources, recreation and tourism values.11 Each theme presents:
These findings and recommendations will guide the development of standards
for sustainable forest practices in Clayoquot Sound, which will form the basis of
our final report.
Watersheds are the natural functional urtits of a landscape, within which the
many components of an ecosystem are connected through transfers of energy,
water, and matter. Watershed integrity represents the sustained normal regime
of those transfers, which depends upon the stability of bedrock, soils, and
landforms. Watershed integrity is the necessary physical basis for the security
of the forest and stream ecosystem.
The landscape of coastal British Columbia is ever-changing. However, natural
change is slow, taking place over thousands of years. Major storms and large
events such as landslides occur as part of long-term change. Such events may
be catastrophic for some living parts of ecosystems, but the biota is adapted to
survive or recover from occasional high-impact events.
In systems where humans have intervened heavily, the rate and degree of
environmental change, and the frequency of high-impact events may
significantly reduce soil, slope, and stream channel stability. The biota of
systems affected may not adapt rapidly enough and, consequently, will be
at substantially greater risk of loss.
Section 4 - p.19
In the past, many concerns about forestry-related effects on ecosystems centered
around impacts on fisheries. These impacts were often the cause of serious land
management conflict. From the late 1950s, attention focused on the effects of
increased sediment and water temperature on fish and fish habitat. Sediment
effects on fish directed attention to questions of soil erosion and slope stability.
Over time, research has shown that channel integrity, large woody debris in
channels, and the riparian area also affect fish and fish habitat.
The Panel assumes that if ecosystem management is carried out successfully,
special values associated with fisheries, wildlife, and biodiversity will be
conserved. Management procedures that maintain watershed integrity will
provide ecological protection for terrestrial and aquatic life, and for fisheries
values.
The following four subsections consider components of watersheds that must be
maintained to attain watershed integrity.
The landforms, surficial materials, and soils12 of Clayoquot Sound are a legacy of
the last glaciation and over 12000 years of post-glacial weathering and erosion.
The valleys that penetrate Vancouver Island mountains are glacial troughs, with
steep, rocky mid to upper slopes and gentler lower slopes commonly covered
by thick glacial till. Near the mouths of larger valleys and on the Estevan coastal
plain, glacial outwash and marine sediments occur. On the floors of the larger
valleys, floodplains, fluvial fans, modern deltas, and estuaries have formed in
recent millennia. On the steep slopes above, weathering and gravity have
modified and redistributed the glacial and bedrock materials through landslides.
Surface materials are an important component of a watershed because they
support plants, regulate the flow of water and the supply of sediment to streams,
and provide the substrate for roads. Surface materials can be viewed from two
distinct but related perspectives: physical (surficial materials) and ecological
(soil).
From a physical perspective, maintaining soil and slope stability, and preventing
surface erosion are key concerns. Loss of soil through erosion can be
compensated for only very slowly, by weathering of surficial materials or
bedrock and by accumulating organic matter. When soil and surficial materials
are eroded in new ways or at accelerated rates compared to natural "background
levels," terrestrial ecosystems are degraded, and the sediments produced can
Section 4 - p.20
cause undesirable changes in associated aquatic ecosystems. From an
engineering perspective, processes such as landsliding and how surficial
materials respond to manipulation such as road construction, are of particular
interest.
Ecological and silvicultural interests in soil relate to its ability to support plants.
Soil provides the necessary physical, chemical (nutritional), and biological
conditions for plant growth. Soil also regulates the entry, storage, and flow of
water and solar energy. Differences across the landscape in soil properties, and
resulting capabilities, largely determine the pattern and productivity of
ecosystems. Changes in soils because of their use can enhance (usually short
term) or damage (usually longer term) soil capability.
On Vancouver Island's steep slopes, weathering and gravity result in various
types of landslides. Rockfalls and rockslides result from the collapse of rock
faces and bluffs-sites often too steep to support closed forest and therefore not
usually affected by logging.
Debris slides and flows result from a combination of steep slopes, discontinuities
between the permeable soil and relatively impermeable surficial materials or
bedrock, and heavy rainfall. During prolonged heavy rainfall, at times
augmented by snowmelt, water moving down through the soil accumulates
above less permeable material. This accumulation leads to higher pore water
pressure, reduced soil strength and, on vulnerable sites, the eventual sliding of
soil. Earthquakes and wind stresses transmitted to the ground via trees and
windfall may also trigger debris slides and flows.
Clearcutting on steep slopes increases the frequency of debris slides and flows
by disturbing soil during yarding, triggering windfall along cutblock edges, and
reducing soil strength when the root web decays following cutting. Inadequately
built or maintained roads can create unstable cutslopes and fillslopes, and alter
slope hydrology triggering slides some distance downslope (see Section 4.1.2).
Accelerated surface erosion by water (including raindrop, sheet, rill, and gully
erosion) occurs in Clayoquot Sound forests when the continuity of the protective
forest floor is broken, and erodible mineral soil materials are exposed. This
exposure occurs mainly along roads and landings, and on areas affected by slides
and windfall. Surface erosion can result from poorly planned or poorly applied
logging methods.
Roads are usually the main source of sediment, particularly in the absence of
slides and streambank erosion. Concentrated water flows along ditches are a
potential continuing source of sediment, although this erosion can be reduced
substantially by designing and constructing roads tailored to the local materials
and by applying erosion control measures.
Section 4 - p.21
The physical, nutritional, and biological character of soil must be maintained to
preserve its productive capability. Management of organic matter is central to all
three characteristics. Organic matter on the forest floor and in the mineral soil
improves the physical properties of the soil (e.g., density, porosity, permeability),
affecting its infiltration capacity, water retention, and water flow. This improves
the soil's resistance to surface erosion by water, and provides a more favourable
physical environment for plant roots.
Because forest soils in Clayoquot Sound are relatively strongly weathered for
their age, and consequently have low pH and base saturation, most "available"
nutrient elements reside in soil organic matter. The mineral soil component is
more important in providing a physical medium and support for plants than in
storing nutrients. Ecosystem function and productivity are maintained by
efficient cycling of a limited stock of nutrients. Organic matter on the forest floor
and within the soil is the main source of energy and nutrients for a highiy
complex community of soil animals and microorganisms. These organisms are
critical to the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling, and other
specialized functions such as nitrogen-fixation and mycorrhizal symbiosis.
Even shallow organic soils over bedrock have surprisingly good capability to
support forests. When shallow soils are present, forests can successfully colonize
denuded areas in 50 to 150 years, prior to redevelopment of a deep mineral soil.
Soil organic matter must be maintained to maintain forest productivity.
Maintaining soil capability must allow for change in soil properties over time
(e.g., during forest succession). The key questions are how much change is
acceptable, and over what time period. This time period varies between
vegetation subzones and from site to site. After a major disturbance, forest soil
will not be fully redeveloped until a late-successional forest appears-
approximately 200 to 300 years in Clayoquot Sound. However, essential soil
properties can recover in these organically-dominated soils in about two decades
after the forest canopy closes.
Section 4 - p.22
Both objectives are inherent to soil conservation. Achieving the first objective is a
prerequisite to water conservation, and to achieving the second objective.
Although considerable progress has been made recently in understanding and
avoiding soil instability, current standards do not adequately meet these two
objectives.
Section 4 - p.23
Section 4 - p.24
Section 4 - p.25
The volume and seasonal pattern of water flows in watersheds affect the timing
of many events and ecological processes (e.g., fish migration and algal
production in streams). Water mobilizes nutrients for uptake by plants and
animals, and transfers mineral and organic particulate material. Water on
hillsides may initiate erosion, including landslides and debris flows.
Maintaining the normal volume and timing of water flows depends on
maintaining the natural drainage system. Forest harvesting changes the balance
of evaporation and runoff so that, for some years after logging, runoff is greater
than it would have been if the forest had not been removed. Alteration of natural
drainage systems may also substantially increase peak runoffs. These changes
can benefit fish production during summer periods of low flow but they can also
cause major damage in stream channels and aquatic ecosystems.
In the steep, small watersheds typical of Clayoquot Sound most precipitation
seeps into the permeable forest soils and moves downslope in subsurface
drainage channels. Interruption of these pathways by cut-and-fill roadbuilding
on slopes brings the water prematurely to the surface, and often redistributes
surface drainage. Slope stability problems, gully erosion, increases in debris
flows, and increases in sediment delivery to stream channels often follow this
change in drainage pattern.
The runoff regime, including the incidence and magnitude of high flows,
depends on the pattern of cutblocks in the landscape, the degree of surface
disturbance throughout the watershed, the density and layout of roads, and the
rate of cut. Vegetation and soil filter and transform water inputs into runoff; the
manipulation of vegetation and soil influences the operation of the filter. The
integrity of the drainage system is affected by road layout, construction, and
maintenance practices, and by log-yarding methods. Measures that maintain the
natural drainage regime contribute significantly to the maintenance of water
quality and to slope and soil stability.
Section 4 - p.26
Principles related to runoff regimes are incorporated into forestry planning
documents and manuals (notably, the Coastal Watershed Assessment Procedure).
Drainage is a major subject in the Forest Road and Logging Trail Engineering
Practices. In particular, guidelines about deactivating roads deal with establishing
conditions to stabilize the drainage system. Aspects of drainage that affect stream
channel integrity are incorporated into the British Columbia Coastal
Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines. However, these documents do not take full account
of the natural drainage pattern. Our findings are listed below.
Section 4 - p.27
Protecting water quality within a stream ecosystem requires maintaining safe
thermal regimes, controlling suspended sediment concentration, retaining
natural levels of nutrients, and avoiding release of toxic materials. Unfavourable
temperature, sediment, and nutrient levels each affect parts of an aquatic system.
These effects vary with the intensity of disturbance.
Increase in water temperature affects macroinvertebrate production and many
elements in the biology of fish. The latter include fish growth, fish egg
incubation rates and consequent timing of fry emergence, timing of fish
movements, interspecific competition, stress, disease, and mortality.
Alteration of rates of processes such as egg incubation may affect the timing of
critical events (e.g., fry movement to sea) and attainment of important growth
stages (e.g., smolt transformation and timing of migration). These changes can
increase or decrease the success of a particular population of fish depending on
the species or life stage affected.
Increases in the concentration of suspended sediment can reduce algal
production in streams, displace or eliminate species of macroinvertebrates, and
affect fish in a range of ways. At low concentrations suspended sediment may
alter fish social behaviour, territorial stability, and feeding effectiveness. As
concentration increases, fish may suffer from gill impairment, physiological
stress, changes in blood chemistry; at high sediment concentrations, fish may
die. The impacts suspended sediment have on fish depend on both the
concentration and duration of exposure. Fish are adapted to withstand episodic
exposure to suspended sediment, but it is an undesirable and stressful
environmental element where it occurs.
Falling, yarding, and slashburning after logging make ions and nutrients in the
soil more readily avallable for transport by water. The rate of nutrient loss from
a logged area changes over time. After logging, the flux of nutrients through a
stream system increases in the short term, but decreases over the long term
relative to pre-logging conditions. Short-term increases in nutrient levels have
potentially positive effects on the production of stream algae and, hence, stream
insects. The short-term benefits may be less than optimal because much of the
nutrient influx after logging may be lost through export during autumn and
winter freshets. These nutrient-export rates are particularly high if slashburning
has occurred. Following these short-term upsurges, stream nutrient levels
decrease during second-growth generation and may fall below levels that
occurred in the old-growth forest stage.
A distribution in the landscape of early-, mid-, and late-successional forest stages
must be maintained to balance nutrient release, retention and cycling. A
balanced distribution also favourably influences the thermal, sediment, and
water flow regimes of the stream system.
Section 4 - p.28
Toxic chemicals, released through spills or seepage into aquatic ecosystems, may
have different effects on the components of the system depending on the nature
of the chemical and its concentration. Release of herbicides may eradicate
macrophytes. Such plant loss will in turn reduce stream insect production. Other
toxic chemicals, such as brake fluid, diesel fuel, gasoline, oil, and pesticides in the
aquatic system may produce a range of effects on macroinvertebrates and fish.
Exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of toxins over a prolonged period, or
higher concentrations over a short period, may alter the behaviour and survival
of fish or invertebrates. Exposure to lethal concentrations of toxic chemicals
obviously results in the loss of invertebrates and fish.
These water quality objectives are explicitly or implicitly recognized in current
standards and guidelines for forest practice. Many of the measures that reduce
suspended sediment levels will be the same as those that reduce impacts from
other slope and soil-related problems such as slides and debris flows.
The British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines attempts to deal with
such management concerns. These guidelines, which have evolved over a 10-year
period of constructive interaction between forest and fishery managers from the
Section 4 - p.29
provincial and federal governments and forest industry, incorporate much useful
experience.
Our findings about current standards on water quallty follow.
Section 4 - p.30
West coast British Columbia streams have high hydrological energy. Their
natural flow regimes are sufficiently dynamic to cause rapid changes in channel
conditions if the soil and vegetation of hillslopes or riparian areas are disturbed.
These changes may be more rapid or severe if land-use practices cause more
extreme flows.
Channel integrity is an indicator of slope stability within a watershed. The
character of the downstream channel is largely determined by the volume of
sediment delivered to stream channels from hillslopes. The volume, stability,
and distribution of large woody debris, the rate of channel bank erosion, and the
frequency of lateral relocation of the channel are measures of channel stability.
Further indicators of rates of change of channel stability include scour-rates,
sediment-deposition rates, degree of channel aggradation and consequent
dewatering during low flows, and the increase in channel width-to-depth ratio.
Section 4 - p.31
Flushing of gravel from the upper parts of a stream system, and excessive rates
of deposition in the lower parts are symptoms of destabilization of channel
integrity. Loss of channel stability is indicated in the short term by changes in
gravel "quality," and over the long term, by changes in gravel budgets (i.e., the
amount of gravel stored in headward gullies, and the rate of gravel movement
through the stream and gravel deposition in the lower reaches or estuary).
Rapid changes in channel environments may disrupt elements in the system that
are critical to fish production. This may reduce production of food organisms,
alter rates of fish growth, and disrupt patterns of habitat use and distribution.
Such changes may also reduce fish numbers or dramatically increase fish
population fluctuation, either of which increase the risk of population collapse.
Large woody debris is critical to channel integrity and stream productivity in
small coastal streams. Accumulations of woody debris store sediments and
particulate organic matter. The latter plays a key role in biotic production in
small streams. Large woody debris structures create riffles and a spectrum of
different types of pools. These microhabitats are essential for insect and fish
production. The debris is essential cover for fish, particularly during winter.
Lateral movement of the channel results in transport and deposition of
additional sediment. In many coastal streams, this sediment destroys secondary
channels (which are particularly important for rearing of young fish), fills in
downstream pools, and reduces the quality of chum saimon spawning areas
near the stream mouth.
Channel aggradation and increase in the width-to-depth ratio result in
potentially undesirable conditions for fish production. Dewatering of the channel
occurs during periods of low discharge because the water flows below the gravel
surface. Increased water temperature occurs with the increased surface area per
unit volume of water. The increase in scour and deposition that accompanies
channel aggradation may destroy fish eggs or young fish which are hiding in the
streambed, and may temporarily reduce the density of resident and driting
stream insects. All of these changes typically are accompanied by increased
concentrations of fine sediment, which clog spawning gravels and directly
stress fish.
To manage watershed systems to prevent alterations in hydrological regimes,
increases in sediment input, and loss of riparian vegetation, which result in
loss of channel integrity and dependent biological productivity.
Section 4 - p.32
Forestry practices in coastal British Columbia frequently result in hillslope
failures, debris slides, and sediment loading that directly disturb the stream
channel. Prescriptions for road layout, construction, and maintenance, and for
designating riparian zones must be more effective to prevent these problems.
Such prescriptions are well developed in the British Columbia Coastal
Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines for channel zones in Class A and B streams.19 Slope
stability is addressed in Forest Road and Logging Trail Engineering Practices
guidelines. However, these documents do not sufficiently recognize how
important the headwater stream channels and gullies are in mobilizing and
transferring sediments into productive reaches.
Our findings about channel integrity follow.
Section 4 - p.33
Biodiversity means the full variety of living organisms. It includes all animals,
plants, and microscopic organisms living in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
ecosystems. Biodiversity also includes the genetic variation within and among
populations of each of these species. There are thousands of living species in
Clayoquot Sound, many of them not yet discovered and described by scientists.
Little is known about the ecological requirements of those described beyond the
kinds of habitats in which they are found. The challenge of conserving
biodiversity is to protect, over the long term, all these species and genetic
variants from serious declines or extinctions caused by human activities.
Primary reasons for conserving biodiversity are:
Section 4 - p.34
Maintaining biodiversity requires a system of protected areas as well as
sustainable ecosystem management outside protected areas. When large areas of
forest are fragmented by logging there is a loss of habitat for any species that
requires extensive areas of forest interior. Large protected areas are needed for
such species. Habitat for other species can be provided by smaller patches of
forest in a more managed landscape mosaic. Managing forest ecosystems for
biological diversity is not solely an issue of protected areas. Biological diversity
depends on appropriate management of forests outside protected areas to ensure
that they maintain favourable habitat attributes and do not become ecological
barriers to movement.
Loss of habitat is the chief cause of species' declines and extinctions in the
modern world. The protection of natural habitats is the surest approach to
conserving biodiversity. Maintaining the full variety of habitats is a first step to
maintaining the full variety of species and genotypes. The size and configuration
in which habitats are provided is critical. The need to provide sufficient habitat
for viable populations of native species is a fundamental premise of our
recommendations.
Forest structure, species composition, and ecological function vary substantially
over environmental gradients (e.g., rainfall) within a watershed. Variation among
watersheds results from differences in the distribution of ecosystem types,
ecological history, and chance biogeographic factors. Species distribution and
genetic variation follow these changes in environmental factors and in forest
structure, composition, and function.
Maintaining forests representing the range of environmental variation would
protect the range of habitats for the creatures living there. In places such as
Clayoquot Sound, where little is known about the majority of species, protecting
and managing habitats becomes a surrogate for protecting and managing species.
Section 4 - p.35
This habitat-oriented approach must be supplemented by species-specific
conservation plans where necessary (e.g., for endangered or threatened species).
However, much research is needed before we can design effective plans for all
but a few species.
Through most of its history, a large part of Clayoquot Sound's forested area has
been covered by older forests; young forests have normally occupied a
comparatively small area. Except for landslides, natural disturbances most often
kill trees in small patches; frequently they are of low intensity and leave the
forest understory relatively undamaged. Wind is a common natural disturbance
agent, whereas fires are infrequent. When occasional larger natural disturbances
occurred in the past, they were often discontinuous and resulted in the
establishment of younger forests that were structurally diverse.
Where no logging has occurred, forests in Clayoquot Sound today are almost
entirely old growth. Old-growth forests in Clayoquot Sound characteristically
have abundant large logs and snags, uneven canopies with gaps where trees
have died, well-developed understory layers, and a broad mix of tree ages.
Substantial research in various types of old-growth forests has demonstrated
that this structural diversity is important to many aspects of ecosystem function
and in the provision of habitat for many species of plants, animals and
microorganisms.
We believe more species will be maintained in their natural abundances by
logging practices that create forests resembling natural stand and landscape
patterns than by those which establish forests that are very different. Although
almost axiomatic, this belief is currently untested. The data to test this belief
must be gathered, but in the absence of data to the contrary, it presents the most
logical approach to sustainable ecosystem management.
Fish and the fisheries they support play a central role in the culture and
economy of Clayoquot Sound. Fish depend on the biodiversity and ecological
function of stream systems and riparian areas. The complex food chains
supporting fish such as salmon depend on a host of physical and biological
factors which are sensitive to forest management practices
(see Sections 4.1.2, 4.1.3, and
4.1.4).
Stream systems and the surrounding forests are strongly linked. The root
systems of streamside trees stabilize streambanks; woody debris creates a
diversity of stream habitats; and leaf litter, when decomposed in streams, forms
the basis for aquatic food chains. Riparian areas, in addition to being the primary
habitat of large numbers of terrestrial and aquatic species, are commonly used as
movement corridors or feeding sites for terrestrial species. These connections
between water and land define riparian areas. A riparian area may or may not
support distinctive vegetation. In either case, it is the site of important
interactions.
Section 4 - p.36
In steep-sided rainforest watersheds, streams are numerous and their key role in
ecological integrity goes beyond physical hydrological processes. We believe that
mamtaining the integrity of the water drainage network and its associated
vegetation should be a keystone of any biodiversity conservation strategy in such
areas.
Achieving these objectives requires integrated, ecosystem-based planning at
three levels: the region, the watershed or groups of watersheds, and the stand.
Many of the documents in Tables 1-4 (Appendix III) include standards or
procedures that affect the maintenance of biodiversity. Some of these documents
address biodiversity directly (e.g., British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry
Guidelines, Guidelines to Maintain Biological Diversity in Coastal Forests, Guidelines
for Maintaining Biodiversity During Juvenile Spacing, Interim Wildlife/Forestry
Guidelines for Biological Diversity at the Stand Level During Juvenile Spacing Entries,
Guidelines to Maintain Biodiversity in TFLs 44 and 46). Other documents address
aspects of forest planning that affect biodiversity indirectly. Our findings from a
review of these documents follow.
Section 4 - p.37
Section 4 - p.38
stocking levels) are somewhat flexible, they may not be sufficiently flexible to
maintain the desired biodiversity.
Section 4 - p.39
Section 4 - p.40
Areas of inoperable and unmerchantable forest can be included, but not at
the expense of any of the previous components.
Section 4 - p.41
Similarly, UNCED's Guiding Principles on Forests, included as a principle:
Nuu-Chah-Nulth people have always relied on land, foreshore, and offshore
resources for sustenance. The Nuu-Chah-Nulth people form a majority of the
population of the Clayoquot Sound area, yet they have benefited least from
economic activity in the area. Further, their cultural sites have been threatened
or damaged by activities of the dominant non-indigenous culture. Many of these
sites are essential for Nuu-Chah-Nulth cultural and spiritual well-being. For
these and other important reasons First Nations must be one of the primary
participants in determining the extent of logging activities in Clayoquot Sound.
Section 4 - p.42
Other than providing minimal protection for archaeological sites, current
standards do not recognize Nuu -Chah-Nulth interests and needs. This is a major
deficiency in current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound and a key
issue to be resolved. Recommendations for including First Nations' values are
discussed in Section 5.1.
The way the landscape looks is vitally important to numerous groups including
tourists, recreationists, residents, and First Nations. Not only is the purely
aesthetic aspect important, but also appearances indicate the general state and
vitality of resources and the attitudes of resource managers.
The scenic resources of Clayoquot Sound are outstanding. Dramatic exposed
topography along the west coast provides panoramic views from Pacific Rim
National Park; scenic alpine, river, and lake landscapes are visible from the
highway; and many kilometres of coastal waterways include steep fjords,
islands, estuaries, and distinctive shoreline features. Large open areas provide
significant views up valleys and over ridges, often to alpine peaks in the
background.
Section 4 - p.43
There have been major impacts on the scenery in portions of Clayoquot Sound
due to extensive logging. Vast mountainsides have been clearcut to such a
degree that it will take many years for scenic values to be re-established. Other
areas remain in an unaltered state.
Scenic resources are particularly valuable to tourists and recreationists, who
represent major and growing industries in British Columbia. In recent studies21
in which tourists and recreationists were asked to identify the resources most
important to their activity, all groups but one indicated that scenery is highest in
importance. The only exception was the sport-fishing group that ranked
presence of fish first and scenery second.
Scenic resources are also important to resident groups including First Nations,
who speak often about the wounds that previous forestry activities have inflicted
on the land. Because people have a strong interrelationship with the landscape
and care about it deeply, it is essential that the public be given the opportunity to
understand and comment on scenic resource analysis and planning.
Analysis of scenery involves more than assessing the degree of logging which is
acceptable -which is how it has often been viewed in the past. To manage for
scenery, the inherent characteristics of the landscape must be analyzed to
consider how all land and water uses affect the scenery as it is experienced by
different types of viewers.
To fully understand scenic resources, it is necessary to look at broad patterns in
the landscape in terms of inherent characteristics, type and degree of use or
alteration, and existing and potential public use. People experience scenery over
a large area, generally in relation to a "trip." If the landscape is analyzed and
planned only at a detailed scale, these broad patterns will not be acknowledged.
The detailed level of analysis is also important for more specific forest planning
applications.
Scenic resources have traditionally been considered at the inventory and analysis
stages of forest planning. This approach has been inadequate for protecting
scenic resource values. Without plans for scenic resource management, the
protection of scenic values cannot be ensured. Because every alteration affects
the scenery, visual landscape principles should be used in the layout of all forest
plans. That approach will help ensure that scenic resources are protected.
Section 4 - p.44
Requirements, guidelines, and procedures for visual landscape management are
changing rapidly. Because numerous documents have been released within the
past year and methods continue to evolve, evaluating existing standards is
difficult. Many of the recently-developed standards have not yet been used or
implemented in the field.
When evaluating current standards for visual landscape management, we
considered two kinds of source documents: standards specific to visual
landscape management, and general forest practice standards. Our findings
about scenic resources follow.
Section 4 - p.45
Section 4 - p.46
Section 4 - p.47
Section 4 - p.48
Recreational activities are rapidly growing in importance in B.C. and particularly
in Clayoquot Sound. Numerous studies have documented the significance of
recreational pursuits to the public25 and economic statistics show that recreation
and tourism are already major contributors to the wealth of the province.26 The
fact that recreational values must be addressed in all forest planning and
management activities is rarely questioned.
Clayoquot Sound has outstanding resources for recreation and tourism. Pacific
Rim National Park and the surrounding area provide significant opportunities
for many activities including viewing of natural systems such as old-growth
forests. Some of the primary activities beyond the road-serviced area include
wildlife viewing tours, kayaking, air tours, sport fishing and excursions (e.g.,
to Hot Springs Cove). Many of these opportunities and others, such as remote
lodges and yachting, have the potential to expand.
Tourism is one of the largest industries in the provmce. While some tourism
interests are recognized in current forest management standards through the
protection of scenic and recreation resources, current standards do not ensure
that the specific needs of the tourism industry are identified and addressed.
Some of the objectives and requirements for tourism and recreation are the same,
and others differ. Recreation and tourism are presently within the jurisdictions
of different provincial ministries. Recreation and tourism should be integrated in
forest planning, whether within one combined program or through separate,
linked programs. This report includes tourism when discussing recreation with
the intent that procedures for the two be integrated.
To properly understand recreation resources, broad patterns of use and detailed
sites must be examined. Recreation or tourism experiences often extend over
large areas. To be effective, analysis and planning must consider the entire
experience including the voyage to a destination and the destination itself in its
surroundings.
Recreation resources have traditionally been considered at the inventory and
analysis stages of forest planning. This approach has inadequately protected
recreation values. If no plans for recreation resource management exist, the
protection of recreation values cannot be ensured.
Section 4 - p.49
Because recreation and tourism are public activities, the public perspective is
extremely important at all levels of recreation and tourism planning. The public
can assist in inventory, must be able to express views about analysis, and will
have valuable comments on recreation plans.
Long-standing procedures for recreation inventory have functioned relatively
well with minor refinements occurring as required. However, recreation forest
planning and clear requirements for incorporating recreation needs are under
plans have been lacking. Guidelines to address these shortcomings are under
development.27
Section 4 - p.50
The primary document related to forest recreation is the B.C. Ministry of Forests'
Recreation Manual. This document presents a method for recreation inventory
which also includes some analysis of the significance of recreation resources.
Until recently, other documents dealt with specific topics such as cave
management or protected areas.28 The following are the primary findings about
these recreation documents.
Section 4 - p.51
maintain... recreational values." Because recreation plans do not exist, the
information needed to meet that requirement is only available through direct
contact with a recreation officer, which may or may not occur. Development
Plan Guidelines Vancouver Forest Region states that the Development Plan
should include a recreation inventory, but provides no direction about what
to do with that inventory.
Section 4 - p.52
4.1 Maintaining Watershed Integrity
Watersheds are the natural functional units of the landscape.
Effective ecosystem management conserves fisheries, wildlife, and biodiversity.
4.1.1 Soils, Slope Stability, and Erosion
Rationale
Accelerated soil erosion degrades forest sites and aquatic habitat.
On steep slopes in Clayoquot Sound, debris slides and flows are a significant process of soil erosion.
Roads are a major source of sediment in Clayoquot Sound forests.
Soil organic matter must be maintained to maintain forest productivity.
Goal
Objectives
Findings
Recommendations About Soils, Slope Stability and Erosion
4.1.2 Water Flow
Rationale
Forest harvesting changes the runoff regime.
Changes in the natural range of flows increase soil erosion and threaten stream channel integrity.
Goals
Objectives
Findings
Recommendations About Water Flow
4.1.3 Water Quality
Rationale
The rates and timing of many natural processes are controlled by water temperature.
The fluctuations of nutrient release after logging and during post-logging silviculture treatments influence
productivity in the aquatic ecosystem.
Introduction of toxic chemicals into the ecosystem can cause sublethal effects difficult to detect.
Goals
Objectives
Findings
Recommendations About Water Quality
4.1.4 Channel Integrity
Rationale
Slope stability must be maintained to prevent increased sediment in streams, and to maintain channel integrity.
Stream channel integrity must be maintained over the entire length of the drainage system to sustain the structure
of the aquatic ecosystem and populations of aquatic organisms.
Goal
Objectives
Findings
Recommendations About Channel Integrity
4.2 Maintaining Biodiversity
Rationale
Ecosystems provide essential ecological services.
Maintaining biodiversity requires a system of protected areas as well as sustainable ecosystem management
outside protected areas.
Genetic and species diversity reflect habitat diversity.
Sustainable ecosystem management is based on natural landscape patterns and stand structures.
Natural forest landscapes in Clayoquot Sound are dominated by old-growth forests which are diverse in
composition, structure, and ecosystem function.
Streams and riparian areas are significant for both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.
Goals
Objectives
Findings
Recommendations About Maintaining Biodiversity
4.3 Recognizing First Nations' Values and Perspectives
Rationale
Agenda 21 of UNCED '92 recognizes the relevance of traditional values and
resource management practices. Specifically, it recognizes:
International principles recognize the importance of First Nations' values and traditional knowledge.
Forest policies and standards should protect sites and areas of cultural and spiritual importance to
first nations.
Goals
Objectives
Findings
4.4 Maintaining Scenic Resources,- Recreation, and Tourism
4.4.1 Scenic Resources
Rationale
Forest appearance, and its implications, are important to many people.
Scenic resources must be planned and managed at a broad scale.
Goals
Objectives
Findings
Recommendations About Scenic Resources
4.4.2 Recreation and Tourism
Rationale
Clayoquot Sound has outstanding resources for recreation and tourism.
Tourism has not been adequately addressed in forest planning and management.
Public involvement is needed at various planning levels.
Goals
Objectives
Findings
Recommendations About Recreation and Tourism
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